Abstract
Background: Participatory approaches such as participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and participatory variety selection (PVS) methods empower farmers to play a greater role in the decision-making process and in shaping the future improvement of crops. However, few studies have established breeding priorities and assessed variety preferences for spider plant, a nutrient-rich and medicinal crop mainly grown as landraces by farmers.
Aim: This study aims to set spider plant breeding priorities and select preferred varieties.
Setting: This study was conducted at seven farmer field schools (FFSs) located in various districts of Zimbabwe during the 2021–2022 summer season.
Methods: Landrace genotypes were planted in a variety of demonstration plots where farmers met, learned and discussed important breeding traits, ultimately ranking the landrace genotypes. Important traits of spider plant were identified and prioritised to establish breeding priorities. The final ranking was conducted at the end of the season, and the data were analysed for significance.
Results: The top six most important breeding priorities across the FFS can be ranked as follows: size of leaves > number of branches > taste > late maturity > germination > early leaf growth. Preferences for different genotypes varied among FFSs. CGGUR, CGMRGP-Marondera and CGUZG1 were preferred for higher branching habits. Landraces with larger leaf sizes, were CGNPGRC356, CGMRGP-Marondera.
Conclusion: The preferred genotypes were as follows: Tsholotsho = CGGUR, Rushinga = CGKENYA, Chiredzi = CGMRG1, Mudzi = CGMRGP-Marondera, Horticulture Research Institution – Research community (HRI-R) = CGMRG1 and CGKENYA, and M-Chiota = CGZIM and CGUZG1. Across FFSs, significantly (p < 0.001) higher preference ranks were in the following order: CGMRGP-Marondera > CGMRG1 > CGNPGRC355 > CGKENYA.
Contribution: These genotypes can be utilised for future genetic improvement, seed production and variety release.
Keywords: spider plant; farmer field schools; genotypes; participatory rural appraisal; participatory variety selection; rank.
Introduction
Participatory approaches such as participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and participatory variety selection (PVS) play a crucial role in assessing the preferences and selection criteria of farmers and consumers for crops of interest (Ceccarelli, Galiè & Grando 2013). Participatory rural appraisal allows for the integration of indigenous knowledge, preferences and trait prioritisation by the farmers and stakeholders in the value chain, thereby meeting demand-driven varietal improvement goals (Nakyewa et al. 2021; Woyengo et al. 2014).
Participatory crop breeding involves two methodologies, namely, participatory plant breeding (PPB) and PVS. PPB involves farmer influences across the value chain, whereas PVS engages farmers in decision-making at the early or final stages of varietal development (Ceccarelli & Grando 2019). Participatory variety selection is valuable for identifying materials suitable for breeding programmes, determining target traits and testing materials in farming environments before release (Qazi et al. 2014). To overcome the constraints of conventional breeding, PVS has been employed to integrate indigenous knowledge and selection criteria into cultivar improvement programmes (Sperling et al. 2001; Witcombe et al. 2006). These methods, PVS and PPB, are widely advocated for exploiting the interaction of genotype, environmental, social-cultural and economic factors (Asfaw et al. 2012). Participatory research has been successfully implemented, incorporating diverse perspectives and traits to enhance the effectiveness of technology development, adoption and returns to agricultural research (Ceccarelli 2015; Joshi & Witcombe 2002).
Spider plant (Cleome gynandra L.), like other underappreciated and overlooked crops such as amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), is a neglected and underutilised species with untapped potential (Maroyi 2013, 2014; Shayanowako et al. 2021). This vegetable is nutrient dense and adaptable to marginal environments and low soil fertility. Its leaves are rich in nutrients such as zinc, iron, protein and vitamins A and C, and other parts of the plant have medicinal uses (Blalogoe et al. 2020; Houdegbe et al. 2022; Sogbohossou et al. 2019). This crop has traditionally been collected from wild and fallow lands for home consumption; its production has expanded to fields and peri-urban areas and moved to nutrition gardens. This vegetable is now sold in supermarkets and hotels, offering income opportunities for women and youth farmers (Mwadzingeni et al. 2021). Owing to its perceived potential in the bioeconomy, a flawless understanding of the desires of farmers and additional stakeholders for the development and deployment of new varieties is needed. The development and adoption of crop varieties have traditionally been driven by conventional breeding approaches that focus primarily on quantitative traits without fully considering the needs and preferences of farmers, consumers and other stakeholders (Morris & Bellon 2004). To accelerate the adoption of newly developed spider plant varieties, participatory research should begin with the provision of high-quality seeds, considering production challenges, marketing and user needs. Participatory research has successfully elicited farmers’ perceptions, variety choices and trait preferences for various crops, employing diverse methods (Banla et al. 2018; Colley et al. 2022; Dinssa et al. 2016; Ndinya et al. 2020; Okot, Laing & Shimelis 2022).
This study employed PRAs and PVS trials with farmers who are members of farmer field schools (FFSs) situated in areas where indigenous vegetables are cultivated (De Jonge et al. 2021; Vernooy et al. 2022). The objectives of this study were to understand the breeding priorities of spider plants that can enhance crop improvement and identify preferred landraces that can serve as future parents or be used directly for production. The findings from this study will guide spider plant improvement programmes in designing and deploying varieties on the basis of farmers’ preferred traits.
Research methods and design
Study sites and planting materials
The study sites were Chiredzi, Mudzi, Rushinga, Tsholotsho and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe (UMP), Horticulture Research Station and M-Chiota, as indicated in Table 1. The study sites are in the semi-arid and high-rainfall environments. Ten spider plant landraces were obtained from various sources, including the national gene bank, Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (MUAST), University of Zimbabwe and Horticulture Research Institute (HRI) (Table 2). These landraces were evaluated across study sites during the 2021–2022 summer season. The evaluation of the landraces included the assessment of descriptors such as stem colour, flower colour, petiole colour, leaflet lobbing and stem hairiness, as shown in Table 3.
| TABLE 1: Social and physical characteristics of the study sites. |
| TABLE 2: Spider plant landrace genotypes used in the study and their sources. |
| TABLE 3: List of spider plant (Cleome gynandra L.) landraces and their descriptors. |
Farmer field schools
The FFS utilises the learning cycle as the fundamental approach for knowledge acquisition. Participatory research methods are employed in the FFS for cropping systems research and variety selection, with support from extension officers, research institutes and development organisations.
Farmers’ preferences for traits
The participants of the FFS have been actively involved in cultivating and consuming spider plant, providing valuable knowledge about spider plant production. To understand the important traits and preferences of spider plant, focus group discussions were conducted with the farmers in each FFS. Initially, these discussions aimed to gather information about key characteristics of spider plant, with a specific goal of compiling a list of their important traits. The discussions then progressed to determine the relative importance of each trait using a scale of 0% – 100% to quantify the extent to which each trait contributes to overall preferences.
Participatory variety selection
Participatory variety selection activities were organised across the study districts to evaluate different spider plant landraces and discuss their production. During the season, individual farmers ranked the varieties according to a few traits and the final assessment rank. The ranking scale used ranged from 1 to 5 (1 = very bad, 2 = bad, 3 = average, 4 = good and 5 = very good). The ranking was translated into the local languages of Shona and Ndebele, which are spoken in the study areas. The percentage of farmers who ranked for individual traits was determined for each trait to assess the strength of the landraces in the farmer environments. The farmers then met to perform a final ranking of the varieties on the basis of their seasonal assessments, which they had conducted during the growth of the crop. At Chiredzi and HRI-R farmers had an agread ranking for each landraces, whereas, at other FFS individual farmers ranked each landrace.
Data analysis
The varietal score for each farmer at Tsholotsho, Rushinga, M-Chiota and Mudzi and the agreed and/or combined ranking of the FFS group at Chiredzi and HRI. The varietal scores from the individual farmers in FFS were subjected to chi-square tests to assess the significance, and Kruskal‒Wallis one-way analysis of variance was used for the combined analysis and individual FFS site using Genstat 17th edition.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Settlement, Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS), Horticulture Research Institute.
Results
Spider plant’s important breeding traits
The study sites are in agroecological zones IIA, IV and V, which are the high-rainfall and semi-arid tropics of Zimbabwe and are known for their rich diversity of indigenous vegetables.
Farmer field schools were established with the aim of facilitating learning and experimentation among farmers. More than 80% of the farmers who participated in the FFSs had at least 3 years of farming experience, and they formed collaborative groups. Additionally, a community seed bank was set up at each FFS in semi-arid regions to enable farmers to share seeds, while those farmers in high-potential areas rely on the HRI as their source of vegetable seeds. During the focus group discussions, farmers shared their indigenous knowledge systems to identify the significant traits of spider plant cultivation, as listed in Table 4. Germination of spider plant was highlighted as an important trait in four FFSs, namely, Rushinga, Mudzi, HRI-R and Tsholotsho. Early plant growth rate is an important trait in Rushinga, HRI-R and M-Chiota. Profuse branching was universally regarded as essential across all FFS locations. Farmers expressed the desire for minimal leaf damage to maintain good leaf appearance in terms of pest and disease tolerance. Early leaf harvesting was also considered an important trait by farmers in most of the FFSs. Plant height is an important trait in Rushinga, Mudzi, HRI-R and M-Chiota FFSs. Leaf size was considered important at almost all FFSs, as larger leaves are preferred by farmers. The number of pods, which is linked to seed yield, was particularly important in Rushinga, Mudzi, UMP and Tsholotsho. HRI-R and M-Chiota had similar important traits among the FFSs than among the other FFSs in dry regions. Unlike those close to the HRI research station, the FFSs in drier regions presented additional traits related to seed availability, such as pod number and seed yield (Table 4).
| TABLE 4: Important spider plant traits of farmers in various districts. |
Fourteen spider plant preference traits were further prioritised on the basis of the scores and prioritised among the FFSs. In the Mudzi district, the FFS prioritised the first four traits in descending order: leaf size > taste > number of branches > late maturing. Conversely, in Tsholotsho, the order of breeding traits was germination > number of branches > size of leaves > late maturing. In UMP, the traits were ranked as follows: taste > number of pods > number of branches > size of leaves. In Rushinga, the order of traits was taste > number of branches > early leaf growth > tolerance to drought. At HRI-R, the most prioritised traits were in the following order: number of branches > size of leaves > germination > taste/late maturity. In the M-Chiota FFS, the traits were ranked in the following order: early leaf growth > taste/size of leaves > late maturity. The most frequently mentioned breeding traits among the FFSs were number of branches (mentioned in 6 FFSs), size of leaves (6 FFSs), taste (5 FFSs), late maturity (5 FFSs), pest and disease tolerances (4 FFSs), number of pods (4 FFSs) and dark green leaves (3 FFSs). On the contrary, the least common traits were larger grain size (1 FFS), stem hairiness (1 FFS), green stems (2 FFSs), tolerance to drought (2 FFSs) and taller plants (2 FFSs). When the total scores across the FFSs were considered, the order of importance for the breeding traits was as follows: the size of the leaves was the most highly ranked trait, followed by the number of branches, taste, late maturity, germination and early leaf growth, which was ranked sixth (Table 5).
| TABLE 5: Percentages of breeding priorities and ranks of different traits as assessed by farmers. |
Participatory variety selection
Farmers preferred landraces such as CGNPGRC353, CGMRGP-Marondera and CGKENYA, which exhibited minimal leaf and shoot damage (Table S1). In terms of plant height, the landraces CGNPGRC355, CGGUR and CGKENYA were highly preferred, suggesting a preference for taller plants. Similarly, the landraces CGNPGRC356, CGMRGP-Marondera and CGKENYA were favoured for their larger leaf sizes (Table S2). The landraces CGGUR, CGMRGP-Marondera and CGUZG1 were selected because of their relatively high branching habits. The individual FFS-selected landraces were in the following order: Tsholotsho significantly (p < 0.001) preferred CGGUR (4.09), Rushinga significantly (p < 0.001) preferred CGKENYA (4.22) and Chiredzi significantly (p < 0.001) preferred CGMRGP-Marondera (4.35). The high-potential areas FFSs, HRI-R equally preferred CGMRG1 and CGKENYA (5.0), whereas M-Chiota showed significant (p < 0.001) equal preferences for CGZIM and CGUZG1 (5.0). The across-site analysis revealed significantly (p < 0.001) greater preferences for CGMRG-Marondera (3.9) > CGMRG1 (3.39) > CGNGRC355/CGKENYA (3.34) (Table 6).
| TABLE 6: Overall preference scores of spider plant landraces across the Chiredzi, Mudzi, Rushinga, Tsholotsho, Horticulture Research Institution – Research community and M-Chiota farmer field schools. |
Discussion
Breeding priorities
This study presents findings from FFSs concerning indigenous knowledge and cultivation of spider plant, which is well adapted to the farming systems of the participants. Spider plants have untapped potential in terms of food and nutrition security, revenue creation and livelihood improvement for rural, peri-urban and urban farmers. They fetch high prices when sold in local and international markets, including restaurants, hotels and supermarkets (Mwadzingeni et al. 2021). Participatory rural appraisal methods were employed to prioritise breeding goals for spider plant improvement, a recognised approach for transitioning agriculture from subsistence to market-oriented enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa (Campbell 2001).
The size of the leaves was the most important breeding trait (Table 5), indicating its economic value in terms of production and consumption. Leaf size is also a significant trait in other African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) (Mncwango et al. 2021; Nakyewa et al. 2021). The second-ranked trait, branching, was recognised as a crucial trait by the FFSs, as it results in a bushy plant with numerous harvesting points, a trait also valued in vegetable amaranth (Dinssa et al. 2018; Mncwango et al. 2021; Ndinya et al. 2020). Taste preferences varied among the FFS participants, with some favouring a bitter taste and others not. Further studies are needed to explore preferences on the basis of gender, age group and regional factors, as cultural influences and food availability may play a role (Jan van Rensburg et al. 2009; Thovongi et al. 2021). Additionally, variability in tannin content, which governs the bitterness, has been identified among Zimbabwean spider plant accessions, suggesting the need to involve a diverse range of genotypes and consumers in future studies (Kutsukutsa et al. 2014).
Early growth rate was identified as an important breeding trait, with farmers highlighting the benefit of combining it with late flowering. These two traits extend the duration of the leaf harvesting period, allowing for multiple harvests during the season. Similar considerations regarding the length of the harvesting period have been reported in studies on amaranth (Dinssa et al. 2022). Germination has emerged as a priority breeding trait, as poor germination due to seed dormancy negatively impacts stand establishment and yield (Shilla et al. 2016). Previous studies on PVS of spider plant also emphasised the importance of good germination, while poor germination led to the rejection of a variety (Ndinya et al. 2020). To address this production challenge, there is a need for high-quality seeds, which can be achieved through seed treatment/coating, improved storage practices and the development of improved varieties (Shilla et al. 2016; Sohidji et al. 2020; Thovhogi et al. 2021; Zharare 2012). Previously, Asian germplasm was shown to have a relatively high germination percentage; hence, Asian germplasms can be incorporated into the development of varieties with relatively high germination rates (Blalogoe et al. 2020). A number of seed pre-treatment options have been identified, which increase germination and even seedling vigour, including the use of gibberellic acid (Sohidji et al. 2020; Tapfumaneyi et al. 2023). The capacity to produce an abundance of pods and achieve good seed yield is crucial, particularly for farmers in drier areas. Similar observations of a lack of spider plant seeds have been reported in Namibia and Malawi (Chataika et al. 2022). Participatory research has the advantage of exposing farmers to diverse germplasm, which can be harvested and stored for future use, and the seeds can be kept in their seed banks and shared in the future. This leads to improved adoption, as farmers would have experimented with the varieties. Traits such as green stems, stem hairiness and larger grain size were ranked as lower breeding priorities. Larger grain size may require seed coating to improve seed handling during planting to minimise seed wastage and improve germination. Stem hairiness could be associated with pest tolerance. The need for green stems requires further assessments and discussions with farmers.
Participatory variety selection
Among the different FFS sites, the most preferred genotype was CGGUR in Tsholotsho FFS, which exhibited green stems and petioles; high branching, tall plants; and minimal leaf damage. In Rushinga, farmers preferred CGKENYA, which displayed higher plant height, larger leaf size and minimal damage. In Mudzi FFS, the preferred landrace was CGMRG-Marondera, which displayed low leaf damage, high branching, green stems and medium hairiness. In Chiredzi, the best cultivar was CGMRG1, which has the following traits: greater leaf size and minimum leaf damage, a mixture of green and purple stems, and medium leaf hairiness. The most preferred landraces in M-Chiota were CGZIM and CGUZG1, whereas HRI-R preferred CGMRG1 and CGKENYA. The selection of landraces was in agreement with the need to prioritise the size of leaves, number of branches, taste, late maturity, early harvesting and greater plant height, which has been reported in previous studies by Ndinya et al. (2020) and Chataika et al. (2022). The selections based on all FFSs were in the following order of preferences: CGMRGP-Marondera > CGMRG1 > CGKENYA/CGNPGRC355. This study provides preliminary results concerning farmer preferences, and further studies might consider more on-farm sites, urban consumers, retailers and hotels.
Conclusion and recommendation
The study revealed that the spider plant traits of farmers varied among the different farmers’ field schools. A total of 18 traits were identified, with each FFS generating a unique list of important traits. The important breeding traits consisted of 14 traits, and their ranking differed across the FFS. The overall ranking order across the FFS was as follows: (1) leaf size, (2) number of branches, (3) taste, (4) late maturity, (5) germination and (6) early leaf growth. The overall preferences for landraces across the FFS followed the order CGMRGP-Marondera > CGMRG1 > CGKENYA/CGNPGRC355. These genotypes are recommended for future genetic improvement, promotion, seed production and potential release. Future research should focus on studying the preferences of different age groups, gender-specific preferences and market considerations. Additionally, screening the available genotypes for tannin content is necessary to identify potential parent sources with high, low and medium tannin contents.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the staff at Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Community Technology Development Organization (project: Sowing Diversity and Harvesting Success) and Horticulture Research Institute for hosting and participating in this study.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
Conceptualisation: M.M., K.S. and E.G. Data curation: M.M., E.G., K.S. and P.M. Formal analysis: M.M. and E.G. Funding acquisition: M.M., K.S., P.K. and H.M. Investigation: M.M., K.S., E.G., K.S., H.M., P.K. and P.M. Methodology: M.M., K.S. and E.G. Project administration: K.S., H.M., P.K. and H.M. Resources: K.S., M.M., K.S., P.K., H.M. and P.M. Supervision: K.S. and E.G. Writing – original draft: M.M.; Writing – review and editing: M.M., K.S., E.G., K.S., P.K., H.M. and P.M.
Funding information
This study was funded by the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development, Zimbabwe, under Grant Ref: AIV/2020/03.
Data availability
The data supporting the findings of this study is available within the article, and additional requests for datasets can be made to the corresponding author, M.M.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this study’s results, findings and content.
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