Abstract
Background: Underutilised crops play a critical role in enhancing food and nutrition security, especially considering increasing disruptions in global food systems because of an overreliance on a few major crops. Despite their resilience to harsh environments, these crops remain vulnerable to pest and disease challenges.
Aim: This systematic literature review (SLR) examined the pest and disease management strategies used by indigenous African farmers in cultivating underutilised crops.
Setting: The SLR focused on pest and disease control practices in underutilised crop systems across various African countries.
Methods: The study followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines to ensure a transparent, replicable process. Data were collected from Scopus, Web of Science, CAB Abstracts, Google Scholar and manually searched reference lists. After de-duplication and screening using Mendeley, 30 relevant articles were included in the final review.
Results: There is a general scarcity of literature addressing pest and disease control in underutilised crops. Publications peaked in 2023 and 2024 (n = 4). Tanzania and Kenya produced the most research output. Common pests include aphids, armyworms, grasshoppers and legume pod borers. Identified management strategies include cultural methods (intercropping, crop rotation), chemical control (insecticides) and mechanical approaches (hand picking, traps).
Conclusion: Despite the importance of underutilised crops, pest and disease management remains understudied, highlighting a need for further research and innovation.
Contribution: This review contributes to understanding how African farmers manage pests and diseases in underutilised crops and encourages broader adoption of integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) practices.
Keywords: underutilised crops; indigenous knowledge; crop resilience; sustainable farming; food security; African agriculture; pest control strategies.
Introduction
The current quest for underutilised and indigenous crop (UIC) inclusion in agricultural systems has become critical in this period, when the burgeoning population and poverty levels widen the food insecurity gap, particularly in the Sub-Saharan Africa region (Mabhaudhi et al. 2019). These crops have great potential to contribute to robust socioeconomic growth and transformation in under-resourced African communities, which can ultimately lead to reduced food insecurity (Imathiu 2021; Nkwonta, Auma & Gong 2023). For example, UICs such as Bambra groundnut, sorghum and millet are crucial for improving food security, especially among resource-poor rural households. Nonetheless, these crops are vulnerable to different types of insect pests and diseases, which significantly reduce yields.
Underutilised and indigenous crops have ideal traits for cultivation under inadequate input farming systems and unfavourable areas that characterise smallholder farming systems in Africa (Mabitsela et al. 2023; Motsi, Molapo & Phiri 2022; Porcuna-Ferrer et al. 2024). Thus, these unique characteristics, such as nutrient-rich and dietary diversity, make these crops better contenders than the conventional major crops in terms of agricultural sustainability, and they are not tolerant to pest and disease infestation. Globally, pests and diseases cause annual crop yield loses of about 21% and 30%, respectively, which equates to losses of approximately USD 40 billion (Falcón-Piñeiro et al. 2023). In Africa, the consequences of pests and diseases are severe, leading to yield losses of up to 50% (Neuenschwander et al. 2023). Climate change is expected to trigger more pest and disease infestations in agricultural systems through distribution and seasonal occurrences (Day et al. 2024). This will lead to significant yield losses, influence crop productivity and threaten food security and livelihoods. Some of the most damaging pests posing threats to major UIC such as sorghum, yam, millets, cowpea production in Africa are desert locusts, fall armyworms, stem borers, cotton bollworms and tomato leaf miners (Day et al. 2024; Neuenschwander et al. 2023; Tonnang et al. 2022).
In recent decades, extensive efforts have been made to manage and control pests and diseases. Pest and disease control can be categorised as chemical, biological, cultural, integrated management, and host plant resistance control methods (Neuenschwander et al. 2023; Syed-Ab-Rahman et al. 2018). Chemical control, involving the use of synthetic chemicals, has become the conventional method for controlling both pests and diseases (Kujeke et al. 2015; Shai et al. 2023) and has been widely adopted since the Green Revolution. These synthetic chemicals have contributed significantly to global food production through immediate pest and disease management (Ratto et al. 2022). However, despite their widespread use, concerns over sustainability have arisen because of several drawbacks, including negative impacts on plant and soil ecology, expense, potential harm to human health, development of pest and disease resistance and harm to non-target organisms (Day et al. 2024; Falcón-Piñeiro et al. 2023). As a result, emphasis has shifted towards alternative control methods, such as biological, cultural, integrated management and host plant resistance control methods, to achieve agricultural sustainability (Pretty & Bharucha 2015).
Although advanced strides have been accomplished in disseminating and adopting pest and disease control methods, little is known about UIC pests and disease control in Africa. African smallholder farmers are the primary custodians of these crops, and they rely on their indigenous knowledge for their crop protection. Although the application of indigenous knowledge is significant in smallholder African systems, it is mainly dependent on crop type, geographical location, climate, etc. Numerous studies have been conducted concerning pest and disease control in Africa, but the challenge is a disconnection between scientists who carry out these studies and small-scale farmers who are the targeted beneficiaries on the ground. In addition, synthesising available studies can be a fundamental step in understanding the implications for pest and disease control of UICs. Therefore, it is important to examine the current and historical approaches to pest and disease management on UICs to enable farmers and researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of current approaches and, if needed, develop more appropriate research protocols. This study aimed to synthesise the available literature on the control methods of UICs in Africa using a systematic literature review (SLR).
Research methods and design
This study adopted the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach, a structured and rigorous protocol for conducting SLRs (Moher et al. 2010; Page et al. 2021). The systematic review method was chosen for its categorical, transparent and replicable nature (Greenhalgh et al. 2004). The primary objective of this review was to compile and analyse existing research on pest and disease management in underutilised and indigenous African crops. By following the PRISMA strategy, this study minimises bias (Pussegoda et al. 2017; Sarkis-Onofre et al. 2021), as it adheres to predefined eligibility criteria. The PRISMA framework is particularly well suited for this review as it enables the systematic collection, mapping and synthesis of relevant literature while also identifying research gaps and future directions (Moher et al. 2010).
Search strategy
The SLR utilised a two-stage strategy to extract data following Jellason et al. (2024). The process of collecting data to be used in the SLR commences with defining the search string (Petersen et al. 2008), followed by a thorough examination of the publications (Alon, Apriliyanti & Henríquez Parodi 2021). We used titles, abstracts and keyword searches to select articles for inclusion in this review (Arshad et al. 2023). A comprehensive search of publications related to pest and disease management of African indigenous crops was conducted. This study used four broad databases: Web of Science, Scopus, CAB Abstracts and Google Scholar. The databases were selected because they provide the largest volume of high-impact scientific journals, primarily focusing on plant pests and disease management. The following keywords were used: (‘Indigenous crops’ OR ‘underutilised crops’ OR ‘neglected crops’ OR ‘traditional crops’ OR ‘neglected and underutilised crops’ OR ‘African vegetables’) AND (‘insect’ OR ‘pest’ OR ‘plant disease’ OR ‘Integrated pest management’ OR ‘disease control’). This process did not yield many studies; therefore, we manually searched for other peer-reviewed articles through Google Scholar and reference section of other articles.
Criteria for inclusion or exclusion
The gathering of literature has characteristics that permit the attainment of the researchers’ purpose for the study (Akella et al. 2023). Clear and concise inclusion criteria set the boundaries of the review, allowing reliable, bias-free and reproducible results. The criteria for the selection of articles were based on several characteristics such as time frame, study topic, geographic scope, publication type, language and methodology (Table 1).
| TABLE 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the systematic literature review. |
Search outcomes
A total of 629 articles were retrieved from Scopus (173), Web of Science (25), CAB Abstracts (76) and Google Scholar (355) (Figure 1). After removing 210 duplicates, 419 articles remained. Title and abstract screening excluded 370 articles, leaving 49 for full-text review. Of these, 41 were excluded, resulting in eight eligible studies. An additional 21 articles were identified through reference list screening, bringing the final sample to 29 articles included in this SLR.
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FIGURE 1: The preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses diagram showing the article selection process for the systematic literature review. |
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Ethical considerations
This study is a systematic literature review and did not involve the collection of primary data or any experiments with humans, animals, or plants. Therefore, ethical approval was not required. The research was conducted in accordance with institutional, national, and international standards for research integrity.
Results and discussion
Descriptive statistics
The findings indicate that the initial publication on pest and disease mechanisms for African UICs appeared in 2003 (Figure 2). Subsequently, there was a pause in publications from 2006 to 2010. Since 2010, the number of articles in this field of study has increased, with fluctuations. The highest number of articles (4) was recorded in 2023 and 2024. However, the research dedicated to UICs remains limited.
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FIGURE 2: Publication trend of articles relating to underutilised and indigenous crops’ pests and disease research. |
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The most productive countries for pest and disease management of African UICs are Kenya and Tanzania, with six articles each, followed by Nigeria (n = 5) and Ethiopia (n = 4) (Figure 3). The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Burkina Faso and Cameroon have two articles each, while the remaining countries (i.e. Uganda, Niger and Mali) have one article each. The variation in the number of articles published from each country can be attributed to the degree of research support in these countries for these crops.
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FIGURE 3: Distribution of published articles on pest and disease research in underutilised and indigenous crops by country. |
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The study also examined the most productive journals with respect to pest and disease management for UICs in Africa. Twenty-five journals that published articles in this field of study were identified, and the results revealed that the International Journal of Pest Management published the highest number of articles (n = 4), followed by Sustainability, with two articles each (Figure 4). The remaining journals had one article each.
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FIGURE 4: Distribution of published articles on underutilised and indigenous crop pest and disease research by journal. |
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Major pests and diseases affecting underutilised and indigenous crops
The results of this SLR (Table 2) indicate that African indigenous cereal crops such as sorghum, millet and teff are affected by a wide range of insect pests, including grasshoppers, armyworms and the maize weevil (Ainsley & Kosoy 2015; Kitaba & Kuma 2022; Yêyinou Loko et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2018). Among indigenous leguminous crops such as Bambara groundnut and cowpea, pests such as the cowpea aphid and the legume pod borer are significant, resulting in high yield losses (Godson-Ibeji, Aminu & Chikaire 2023; Muthama et al. 2024; Zhang et al. 2018). Another significant category for UICs is African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) (e.g. amaranth, eggplant, jute mallow, okra, nightshade and fluted pumpkin), which have been found to be affected by insect pests such as beetles, caterpillars and aphids (Anjorin, Jolaoso & Golu 2013; Bihon et al. 2023). These results were consistent with those reported by Ofuya, Okunlola and Mbata (2023). Apart from insect pests, the review found that indigenous African crops are threatened by fungal and viral infections. Blast diseases and parasitic weeds, such as striga, are key challenges affecting traditional cereal crops (Laizer, Chacha & Ndakidemi 2019).
| TABLE 2: Major pests and diseases affecting underutilised and indigenous crops. |
Management of pests and diseases by farmers cultivating underutilised and indigenous crops in Africa
Farmers cultivating UICs in Africa employ a combination of chemical and non-chemical methods to manage pests and diseases (Tonnang et al. 2022). Non-chemical approaches include cultural, mechanical and biological control methods, as well as the use of plant-derived insecticides obtained from locally available resources (Neuenschwander et al. 2023). The following sections provide a detailed discussion of these management strategies.
Application of synthetic chemicals
The use of synthetic chemicals has provided significant benefits to farmers globally (Dwivedi, Sonawane & Pandit 2022; Hedlund, Longo & York 2020; Lykogianni et al. 2021). Farmers cultivating UICs in Africa adopt various pesticide application strategies to manage pests and diseases effectively. Abang et al. (2014) examined farmers’ knowledge of pests and diseases and their management practices by interviewing 194 farmers. The findings revealed that only 21% of farmers could identify diseases, such as late blight and bacterial wilt, and 16% could identify insects, such as aphids and flea beetles. Most of the respondents (92%) used synthetic pesticides and were also willing to adopt pest and disease-resistant crop varieties. A similar study by Abtew et al. (2016) surveyed 216 UIC farmers in Kenya. The results indicated that chemical control was the major pest management strategy for pests and diseases associated with crops such as sorghum, millet and cowpea. Farmers predominantly utilised insecticides from the pyrethroid class, such as lambda-cyhalothrin (38.8%) and organophosphorus insecticides such as profenofos, dimethoate and methomyl.
Okolle et al. (2016) assessed and identified the knowledge and perception of pests and diseases and the management practices among the indigenous vegetable farmers in Cameroon. The results from key informants and structured interviews revealed that most farmers used pesticides because they perceived them to be efficient and required less labour. Similarly, in Nigeria, Zhang et al. (2018) noticed that approximately 78% of sorghum and 57% of cassava farmers used insecticides to control pests and diseases. Laizer et al. (2019) found that most farmers (83%) viewed insects as a critical challenge in indigenous common bean production (Laizer et al. 2019). Insect pest management was primarily attained through synthetic pesticides such as profenofos and glyphosate as a common herbicide. Mojo and Zemudu (2022) further assessed pesticide use through survey data from 775 farmers in selected areas of Ethiopia. The findings indicate that most teff farmers (99%) used at least one type of chemical pesticide. Although the study did not provide examples of pesticides, 80% of the farmers stated that pesticides efficiently controlled pests and diseases. Muthama et al. (2024) investigated how farmers manage pests in Kenya as well as the incidence of pests and diseases on leafy vegetables and pulses. The results from 226 respondents showed that 46% used different types of insecticides to manage pests and diseases.
These findings highlight the widespread reliance on synthetic pesticides among farmers cultivating UICs in Africa, driven by their perceived effectiveness and ease of use. However, the limited ability of farmers to identify specific pests and diseases calls attention to the need for enhanced training and integrated pest management strategies to promote more sustainable and informed pest control practices.
Cultural control approach
The utilisation of suitable cultural farming practices to curb or decrease insect pest infestations has been passed on from generation to generation in many African farming communities. Cultural farming practices are easily adopted because of their affordability.
Intercropping
Intercropping is a cultural farming practice that involves growing two or more crops in proximity (Neuenschwander et al. 2023). The primary goal is to optimise land use by enhancing resource utilisation, particularly soil nutrients, while also improving pest and disease management. This practice can help concentrate pests within a smaller area, making control more manageable (Horwith 1985; Hossain, Kader & Islam 2017). Studies have shown that intercropping can effectively reduce pest and disease infestations. For instance, Singh et al. (2017) reported that intercropping okra with legumes significantly reduced leaf beetle infestations. Similarly, Rosulu et al. (2022) found that alternating chilli pepper with cowpea not only improved pest management but also increased yields for both crops.
Several studies reviewed indicate that African farmers cultivating UICs frequently practiced intercropping as a pest and disease management strategy (Ibrahim et al. 2018; Laizer et al. 2019; Mrema et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2018). Godson-Ibeji et al. (2023) examined indigenous crop farming in Nigeria and found that 93.1% of the surveyed farmers practiced intercropping, reporting higher productivity per unit area compared to monocropping systems. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2018) observed that intercropping systems in Nigeria experienced lower pest severity than monocropping systems, reinforcing the effectiveness of diverse cropping systems in pest control.
Crop rotation
Crop rotation allows farmers to continuously cultivate different plants during successive seasons. In this SLR, several articles identified crop rotation as a cultural method employed by African UIC farmers. Mrema et al. (2017) focused on striga infestation as a significant challenge for sorghum production. The findings revealed that farmers adopted crop rotation to control the outbreak of striga, as it broke its life cycle. However, the efficacy of this method is limited by the scarcity of land and the affinity for monocropping among farmers. Mongi et al. (2016) found that farmers resorted to rotating common beans with other crops to reduce the incidence of angular leaf spots. Although crop rotation is efficient in controlling the spread of angular leaf spots, their study revealed that only a few farmers (10.01%) practiced crop rotation. The lower adoption of crop rotation is attributed to factors such as limited knowledge and high levels of poverty. The findings of Mongi et al. (2016) agree with Laizer et al. (2019), who noticed that about 6.45% of common bean farmers in Tanzania rotated this crop with non-host crops, such as maize and African eggplant. Laizer et al. (2019) reported that farmers adopted crop rotation to increase yields, enhance soil fertility and reduce the risk of crop failure. In the case of Bambara groundnut, Ibrahim et al. (2018) revealed that only 2% of farmers employed crop rotation, suggestive of the fact that there is a need for improvement.
Land preparation
Farmers practice different land preparation activities, such as bush clearing, ploughing and harrowing, to mention a few, and these have differing effects on pest management (Ochieng et al. 2022). Soil tillage and swift crop residue destruction reduce the spread of pests, such as lepidopterans, among indigenous vegetables (Ofuya et al. 2023). Mbinda et al. (2021) observed that applying wood ash during land preparation assisted in controlling pests and diseases affecting teff and millet, such as the Angoumois grain moth. This result agrees with those of other studies. Jwakdak and Akueshi (2014) stated that the phytochemical composition of wood ash is a good repellent for insect pests. Ochieng et al. (2022) examined the factors influencing the adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies to manage pests and diseases among indigenous vegetables. Their findings revealed that most of the respondents (58%) adopted organic farming methods, such as applying organic manure to control the incidence of pests and diseases in indigenous crops, such as African nightshade.
Biopesticides
Biopesticides are a naturally occurring subclass of pesticides derived from plants, animals and microorganisms, such as bacteria and cyanobacteria, and are employed to address the challenge of pests and pathogens (Kumar et al. 2021). Biopesticides, such as traditional chemical pesticides, have more benefits than their counterparts because they are eco-friendly and host-specific (Essiedu, Adepoju & Ivantsova 2020). In this SLR, only one study (Ochieng et al. 2022) reported that traditional vegetable farmers adopted biopesticides such as Metarhizium anisopliae, a fungus that acts as a biological control of different insect pests, and Trichoderma harzianum, which suppresses plant pathogens and promotes growth. Neem (Azadirachta indica) extracts have gained popularity in UICs for aphid control in cowpea farming because of their eco-friendly properties. Derived from leaves and seeds, neem biopesticides deter feeding and disrupt pest reproduction, offering a sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides (Muhammad & Kashere 2020). A study by Amadou et al. (2025) showed that neem seed extract reduced thrips density and Maruca vitrata larvae by 54.4% and 69.12%, respectively, increasing yield by 68.10% compared to controls. Other studies, such as Chang et al. (2003), found that adopting bio-based chemicals in farming ensures crop protection.
Mechanical control
Mechanical pest control involves the use of physical approaches and barriers to manage pest populations, with the most prevalent strategies including manual weed removal, physical traps, pruning and tilling to aid in pest management. In this SLR, studies such as those by Omokaro (2024), Muthama et al. (2024), Ochieng et al. (2022) and Kibata and Kuma (2022) gave vital insights into several mechanical pest and disease control mechanisms adopted by African UIC farmers in countries such as Nigeria, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya. Yêyinou Loko et al. (2017) examined farmers’ perceptions of termites in agricultural production. Their study identified several mechanical pest control methods, including the destruction of termite mounds. About 54.26% of the respondents actively destroyed termite mounds, especially those that impede ploughing. Although this practice targets eliminating termites that can destroy crops, it was ineffective because of the rapid rebuilding capabilities of the termites.
Regarding the sustainable farming of vegetables in Tanzania, Ochieng et al. (2022) noticed that farmers used insect traps to monitor and decrease insect pest populations in indigenous vegetables and pest scouts to enhance pest and disease control. Although mechanical pest control methods are vital, the study found that the adoption of this method is low (Ochieng et al. 2022). Omokaro (2024) focused on the farmers’ perceptions of the pest and disease control methods implemented in Nigeria. The findings revealed that approximately 37.5% of the respondents adopted mechanical methods as non-chemical plant protection strategies. Several strategies have been proposed for this purpose. For instance, manual weed removal was adopted by 43.75% in Edo State and 37.5% in Delta State, and mulching and tilling were used by 30% of the respondents in Edo State. Muthama et al. (2024) noticed that AIV farmers in Kenya used mechanical pest control methods such as physical traps, pruning of affected crop parts and insect nets.
Adoption of resistant improved varieties
The adoption of improved cultivars has emerged as an effective strategy in combating pests and diseases within modern agricultural systems (Abang et al. 2014; Mongi et al. 2016). However, their uptake among smallholder farmers in Africa, particularly in UIC, remains relatively low. This systematic review, although under few studies, provides evidence of the limited adoption of such practices by farmers and further indicates, in some cases, farmer’s willingness to adopt these improved varieties. For example, the research conducted by Owere et al. (2014) in Uganda found that the uptake of finger millet varieties with enhanced resistance to blast disease among small-scale farmers is limited. This is partly because of breeders not engaging farmers or addressing their concerns during the development of these cultivars. Notably, farmers showed a preference for new varieties that are resistant to blast disease, as they recognise the potential of these improved cultivars to safeguard their harvests from the disease (Owere et al. 2014). Mrema et al. (2017) found that in Tanzania, approximately 35% of farmers in the Igunga district, 15% in Kishapu and 10% in Meatu only were familiar with cultivating the improved new varieties, reflecting the low adoption rate of these enhanced cultivars.
Rural farmers can utilise these enhanced cultivars to combat pests and diseases, thereby boosting UIC yield advantages in their agricultural systems. These strategies aim to strengthen the crops’ inherent resistance to pests and diseases, which in turn decreases the dependence on chemical pesticides and encourages sustainable farming practices. Techniques for genetic enhancement, including host plant resistance, participatory plant breeding and molecular tools, have been crucial in creating pest-resistant crop varieties (Lefebvre, Boissot & Gallois 2020). Resistance genes sourced from wild relatives and innovative genes, such as those derived from Bacillus thuringiensis, have been successfully incorporated into crops to boost their resistance to significant pests and diseases (Dar et al. 2006). The implementation of genetically modified (GM) crops has proven successful in various regions (Ludidi 2022). However, its influence in sub-Saharan Africa has been minimal because of public opposition and the significant expenses involved in creating GM crops tailored to the diverse local agricultural systems (Kedisso et al. 2023). To explore the potential for adopting this GM technology in UIC crops, a focused research strategy that includes all relevant stakeholders might be crucial.
Conclusion
This SLR focused on pest and disease management among African UIC farmers. With limited research on the topic, the findings suggest that pests and diseases, including insects, viruses and fungi, pose significant threats to UICs. The study further emphasises the utilisation of both chemical and non-chemical strategies, including cultural, mechanical, biological and improved cultivar control methods, to manage pests and diseases. While these methods offer clear benefits, their adoption is often constrained by challenges, including limited access to advanced technologies, insufficient field data, and socio-economic barriers that rural farmers face. Given the scarcity of studies in this area, there is a need for further research into pest and disease management strategies in these crops.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. The author, E.E.P., serves as an editorial board member of this journal. The peer review process for this submission was handled independently, and the authors had no involvement in the editorial decision-making process for this manuscript. The authors have no other competing interests to declare.
Authors’ contributions
M.M.M., H.M., and E.E.P. all contributed to the conception and design of the study, as well as the analysis and interpretation of the data presented in this manuscript. M.M.M., H.M., and E.E.P. each participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions of the content. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript for submission. All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. No individual who qualifies for authorship has been omitted, and all listed authors have made a significant intellectual contribution to the manuscript in line with international publishing standards.
Funding information
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship or publication of this article.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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